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Markas Info. The economics of a depression were the spur for the creation of "macroeconomics" as a separate discipline. During the Great Depression of the s, John Maynard Keynes authored a book entitled The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money outlining the key theories of Keynesian economics. Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.

He therefore advocated active policy responses by the public sector , including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle.

Over the years, understanding of the business cycle has branched into various research programmes , mostly related to or distinct from Keynesianism. The neoclassical synthesis refers to the reconciliation of Keynesian economics with neoclassical economics , stating that Keynesianism is correct in the short run but qualified by neoclassical-like considerations in the intermediate and long run.

New classical macroeconomics , as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information. It includes Friedman's permanent income hypothesis on consumption and " rational expectations " theory, [] led by Robert Lucas , and real business cycle theory. In contrast, the new Keynesian approach retains the rational expectations assumption, however it assumes a variety of market failures.

In particular, New Keynesians assume prices and wages are " sticky ", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions. Thus, the new classicals assume that prices and wages adjust automatically to attain full employment, whereas the new Keynesians see full employment as being automatically achieved only in the long run, and hence government and central-bank policies are needed because the "long run" may be very long.

The amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, the percentage of workers without jobs in the labour force. The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs. People who are retired, pursuing education, or discouraged from seeking work by a lack of job prospects are excluded from the labour force. Unemployment can be generally broken down into several types that are related to different causes.

Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers. Consistent with classical unemployment, frictional unemployment occurs when appropriate job vacancies exist for a worker, but the length of time needed to search for and find the job leads to a period of unemployment.

Structural unemployment covers a variety of possible causes of unemployment including a mismatch between workers' skills and the skills required for open jobs. Structural unemployment is similar to frictional unemployment since both reflect the problem of matching workers with job vacancies, but structural unemployment covers the time needed to acquire new skills not just the short term search process.

While some types of unemployment may occur regardless of the condition of the economy, cyclical unemployment occurs when growth stagnates. Okun's law represents the empirical relationship between unemployment and economic growth. Money is a means of final payment for goods in most price system economies, and is the unit of account in which prices are typically stated.

Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.

It includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits. It has been described as a social convention , like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others. In the words of Francis Amasa Walker , a well-known 19th-century economist, "Money is what money does" "Money is that money does" in the original.

As a medium of exchange , money facilitates trade. It is essentially a measure of value and more importantly, a store of value being a basis for credit creation. Its economic function can be contrasted with barter non-monetary exchange. Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialized producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book.

Money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of its ready acceptability. Then it is less costly for the seller to accept money in exchange, rather than what the buyer produces. At the level of an economy , theory and evidence are consistent with a positive relationship running from the total money supply to the nominal value of total output and to the general price level.

For this reason, management of the money supply is a key aspect of monetary policy. Governments implement fiscal policy to influence macroeconomic conditions by adjusting spending and taxation policies to alter aggregate demand.

When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed. Governments increase spending and cut taxes to boost aggregate demand. Resources that have been idled can be used by the government. For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways. Tax cuts allow consumers to increase their spending, which boosts aggregate demand.

Both tax cuts and spending have multiplier effects where the initial increase in demand from the policy percolates through the economy and generates additional economic activity. The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out. When there is no output gap, the economy is producing at full capacity and there are no excess productive resources.

If the government increases spending in this situation, the government uses resources that otherwise would have been used by the private sector, so there is no increase in overall output.

Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed. Sceptics of fiscal policy also make the argument of Ricardian equivalence. They argue that an increase in debt will have to be paid for with future tax increases, which will cause people to reduce their consumption and save money to pay for the future tax increase.

Under Ricardian equivalence, any boost in demand from tax cuts will be offset by the increased saving intended to pay for future higher taxes. Public economics is the field of economics that deals with economic activities of a public sector , usually government. The subject addresses such matters as tax incidence who really pays a particular tax , cost-benefit analysis of government programmes, effects on economic efficiency and income distribution of different kinds of spending and taxes, and fiscal politics.

The latter, an aspect of public choice theory , models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats. Much of economics is positive , seeking to describe and predict economic phenomena.

Normative economics seeks to identify what economies ought to be like. Welfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine the allocative efficiency within an economy and the income distribution associated with it.

It attempts to measure social welfare by examining the economic activities of the individuals that comprise society. International trade studies determinants of goods-and-services flows across international boundaries. It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.

Policy applications include estimating the effects of changing tariff rates and trade quotas. International finance is a macroeconomic field which examines the flow of capital across international borders, and the effects of these movements on exchange rates.

Increased trade in goods, services and capital between countries is a major effect of contemporary globalization. Labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labor. Labor markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labor economics looks at the suppliers of labor services workers , the demands of labor services employers , and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income.

In economics, labor is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work , although there are also counter posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms.

Development economics examines economic aspects of the economic development process in relatively low-income countries focusing on structural change , poverty , and economic growth. Approaches in development economics frequently incorporate social and political factors. Economics has historically been subject to criticism that it relies on unrealistic, unverifiable, or highly simplified assumptions, in some cases because these assumptions simplify the proofs of desired conclusions.

Prominent historical mainstream economists such as Keynes [] and Joskow observed that much of the economics of their time was conceptual rather than quantitative, and difficult to model and formalize quantitatively. In a discussion on oligopoly research, Paul Joskow pointed out in that in practice, serious students of actual economies tended to use "informal models" based upon qualitative factors specific to particular industries.

Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were "trotted out ex post ". He argued that formal models were largely not important in the empirical work, either, and that the fundamental factor behind the theory of the firm, behaviour, was neglected. Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies [] monetary and fiscal policy of the state are a focus of contention and criticism.

In the s, feminist critiques of neoclassical economic models gained prominence, leading to the formation of feminist economics. Primary criticisms focus on: the assumed selfish nature of actors homo economicus ; exogenous tastes [ clarification needed ] ; the difficulty of utility comparisons across agents; the exclusion of unpaid work in Macroeconomic measures; and the lack of consideration for class and gender.

Economics has been derogatorily dubbed " the dismal science ", first coined by the Victorian historian Thomas Carlyle in the 19th century.

It is often stated that Carlyle gave it this nickname as a response to the work of Thomas Robert Malthus , who predicted widespread starvation resulting from projections that population growth would exceed the rate of increase in the food supply. However, the actual phrase was coined by Carlyle in the context of a debate with John Stuart Mill on slavery , in which Carlyle argued for slavery; the "dismal" nature of economics in Carlyle's view was that it "[found] the secret of this Universe in 'supply and demand', and reduc[ed] the duty of human governors to that of letting men alone".

Economics is one social science among several and has fields bordering on other areas, including economic geography , economic history , public choice , energy economics , cultural economics , family economics and institutional economics. Law and economics, or economic analysis of law, is an approach to legal theory that applies methods of economics to law.

It includes the use of economic concepts to explain the effects of legal rules, to assess which legal rules are economically efficient , and to predict what the legal rules will be. Political economy is the interdisciplinary study that combines economics, law, and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system capitalist, socialist , mixed influence each other.

It studies questions such as how monopoly, rent-seeking behaviour, and externalities should impact government policy. Energy economics is a broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to energy supply and energy demand.

Georgescu-Roegen reintroduced the concept of entropy in relation to economics and energy from thermodynamics , as distinguished from what he viewed as the mechanistic foundation of neoclassical economics drawn from Newtonian physics.

His work contributed significantly to thermoeconomics and to ecological economics. He also did foundational work which later developed into evolutionary economics. The sociological subfield of economic sociology arose, primarily through the work of Émile Durkheim , Max Weber and Georg Simmel , as an approach to analysing the effects of economic phenomena in relation to the overarching social paradigm i.

More recently, the works of James S. Coleman , [] Mark Granovetter , Peter Hedstrom and Richard Swedberg have been influential in this field. Gary Becker in presented an economic theory of social interactions, whose applications included the family , charity, merit goods and multiperson interactions, and envy and hatred.

The professionalization of economics, reflected in the growth of graduate programmes on the subject, has been described as "the main change in economics since around ".

See Bachelor of Economics and Master of Economics. In the private sector, professional economists are employed as consultants and in industry, including banking and finance. Economists also work for various government departments and agencies, for example, the national treasury , central bank or National Bureau of Statistics. See Economic analyst. There are dozens of prizes awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions to the field, the most prominent of which is the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences , though it is not a Nobel Prize.

Contemporary economics uses mathematics. Economists draw on the tools of calculus , linear algebra , statistics , game theory , and computer science. Harriet Martineau was a widely-read populariser of classical economic thought. Mary Paley Marshall , the first women lecturer at a British economics faculty, wrote The Economics of Industry with her husband Alfred Marshall. Joan Robinson was an important post-Keynesian economist. The economic historian Anna Schwartz coauthored A Monetary History of the United States, — with Milton Friedman.

Five have received the John Bates Clark Medal : Susan Athey , Esther Duflo , Amy Finkelstein , Emi Nakamura and Melissa Dell Women's authorship share in prominent economic journals reduced from to the s, but has subsequently risen, with different patterns of gendered coauthorship. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Economics disambiguation. Social science. Branches and classifications. Schools of economics Mainstream economics Heterodox economics Economic methodology Economic theory Political economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics International economics Applied economics Mathematical economics Econometrics JEL classification codes.

Concepts, theory and techniques. Economic systems Economic growth Market National accounting Experimental economics Computational economics Game theory Operations research Middle income trap Industrial complex. By application. Notable economists. François Quesnay Adam Smith David Ricardo Thomas Robert Malthus John Stuart Mill William Stanley Jevons Léon Walras Alfred Marshall Irving Fisher John Maynard Keynes Friedrich Hayek Arthur Cecil Pigou John Hicks Wassily Leontief Paul Samuelson more.

Notable critics of economics. Karl Marx Thomas Carlyle John Ruskin more. Glossary Economists Publications journals. Main articles: History of economic thought and History of macroeconomic thought. This section is missing information about information and behavioural economics, contemporary microeconomics.

Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. September Main article: Classical economics. Main article: Marxian economics. Main article: Neoclassical economics. Main articles: Keynesian economics and Post-Keynesian economics. Main article: Chicago school of economics. Main article: Austrian School. Main article: Schools of economic thought. Main articles: Microeconomics , Macroeconomics , and Mathematical economics.

For the publication, see Economic Theory journal. Main articles: Econometrics and Experimental economics. Main articles: Microeconomics and Market economics. Main articles: Production economics , Opportunity cost , Economic efficiency , and Production—possibility frontier. Main articles: Division of labour , Comparative advantage , and Gains from trade.

Main article: Supply and demand. Main articles: Theory of the firm , Industrial organization , Business economics , and Managerial economics. Main articles: Information economics , Game theory , and Financial economics.

Main articles: Market failure , Government failure , Information economics , Environmental economics , Ecological economics , and Agricultural economics. Main article: Welfare economics. Main article: Macroeconomics. Main article: Economic growth. Main article: Business cycle.

See also: Circular flow of income , Aggregate supply , Aggregate demand , and Unemployment. Main article: Unemployment. Main articles: Inflation and Monetary policy. See also: Money , Quantity theory of money , and History of money. Main articles: Fiscal policy , Government spending , and Tax. Main article: Public economics. Main article: International economics. Main article: Labor economics. Main article: Development economics. The neutrality of this article is disputed.

Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. June Learn how and when to remove this template message. Main articles: Law and economics , Natural resource economics , Philosophy and economics , and Political economy.

Main article: Economist. Business and economics portal. The latter includes wages and labour maintenance, money, and inputs from land, mines, and fisheries associated with production.

Besides this knowledge, the merchant must also understand the processes of his art. He must be acquainted with the commodities in which he deals, their qualities and defects, the countries from which they are derived, their markets, the means of their transportation, the values to be given for them in exchange, and the method of keeping accounts.

The same remark is applicable to the agriculturist, to the manufacturer, and to the practical man of business; to acquire a thorough knowledge of the causes and consequences of each phenomenon, the study of political economy is essentially necessary to them all; and to become expert in his particular pursuit, each one must add thereto a knowledge of its processes.

It does not attempt to pick out certain kinds of behaviour, but focuses attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity. Robbins , p. presence of oligopoly or monopoly; but why is this not a product of the following? practical monopoly 7 perfect information in The Economics of the Welfare State 4th ed.

Oxford University Press. ISBN Stiglitz classifies market failures as from failure of competition including natural monopoly , information asymmetries , incomplete markets , externalities , public good situations, and macroeconomic disturbances in "Chapter 4: Market Failure". Economics of the Public Sector: Fourth International Student Edition 4th ed. Oxford English Dictionary Online ed.

Subscription or participating institution membership required. Economics 3rd ed. Worth Publishers. The Penguin history of economics. OCLC The boundaries of what constitutes economics are further blurred by the fact that economic issues are analysed not only by 'economists' but also by historians, geographers, ecologists, management scientists, and engineers.

Essays in Positive Economics. University of Chicago Press. The Foundations of Positive and Normative Economics: A Handbook. Applied regression analysis for business and economics. Health Policy. doi : PMID Engineering Economics. Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.

Fiscal Tiers: the economics of multi-level government. In Becker, Gary S. Essays in the Economics of Crime and Punishment. National Bureau of Economic Research.

Archived PDF from the original on 13 September Retrieved 1 July The World Bank. Archived from the original on 6 January Retrieved 17 December A Treatise on the Family Enlarged ed. Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 30 July Journal of Economic Perspectives. Archived from the original on 7 April Ferber, Marianne A.

October []. Feminist Economics Today: Beyond Economic Man. Economic Analysis of Law 7 ed. Wolters Kluwer — Aspen Publishers. Posner, Richard A. The Economics of Justice. Smith, Adam [].

Raphael, D. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Indianapolis: Liberty Classics Introduction only. Boulding, Kenneth E. American Economic Review. JSTOR Archived PDF from the original on 5 October Heilbroner, Robert L. The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times, and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers 7 ed.

ISBN X. Sen, Amartya The Idea of Justice. Carlyle, Thomas Fraser's Magazine. Malthus, Thomas Robert An Essay on the Principle of Population. London: J. Persky, Joseph Autumn Backhouse, Roger E. October S2CID Stigler, George J.

Scandinavian Journal of Economics. Rothbard, Murray N. Economic Thought Before Adam Smith: Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Edward Elgar Publishing. Gordan, Barry J. Economic analysis before Adam Smith: Hesiod to Lessius. Brockway, George P. The End of Economic Man: An Introduction to Humanistic Economics fourth ed. Archived from the original on 14 April Retrieved 18 September Encyclopædia Britannica.

Archived from the original on 31 October

Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Microeconomics analyzes what's viewed as basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets , their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions.

Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. Macroeconomics analyzes the economy as a system where production, consumption, saving, and investment interact, and factors affecting it: employment of the resources of labour, capital, and land, currency inflation , economic growth , and public policies that have impact on these elements.

Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics , describing "what is", and normative economics , advocating "what ought to be"; [4] between economic theory and applied economics ; between rational and behavioural economics ; and between mainstream economics and heterodox economics. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, including business , [6] finance , health care , [7] engineering [8] and government. The earlier term for the discipline was ' political economy ', but since the late 19th century, it has commonly been called 'economics'.

There are a variety of modern definitions of economics ; some reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists. a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [with the twofold objectives of providing] a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people Jean-Baptiste Say , distinguishing the subject from its public-policy uses, defined it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The science which traces the laws of such of the phenomena of society as arise from the combined operations of mankind for the production of wealth, in so far as those phenomena are not modified by the pursuit of any other object.

Alfred Marshall provided a still widely cited definition in his textbook Principles of Economics that extended analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level:.

Economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. It enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man.

Lionel Robbins developed implications of what has been termed "[p]erhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject": [26]. Economics is the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses. Robbins described the definition as not classificatory in "pick[ing] out certain kinds of behaviour" but rather analytical in "focus[ing] attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity.

This is because war has as the goal winning it as a sought after end , generates both cost and benefits; and, resources human life and other costs are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors assuming they are rational may never go to war a decision but rather explore other alternatives. We cannot define economics as the science that studies wealth, war, crime, education, and any other field economic analysis can be applied to; but, as the science that studies a particular common aspect of each of those subjects they all use scarce resources to attain a sought after end.

Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets.

From the s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behaviour and rational-choice modelling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields. Gary Becker , a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, described the approach he favoured as "combin[ing the] assumptions of maximizing behaviour, stable preferences , and market equilibrium , used relentlessly and unflinchingly.

Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve. According to economist Ha-Joon Chang economics should be defined not in terms of its methodology or theoretical approach but in terms of its subject matter. Ha-Joon Chang finds a definition like "the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses" very peculiar because all other sciences define themselves in terms of the area of inquiry or object of inquiry rather than the methodology.

In the biology department, they don't say that all biology should be studied with DNA analysis. People study living organisms in many different ways, so some people will do DNA analysis, others might do anatomy, and still others might build game theoretic models of animal behavior. But they are all called biology because they all study living organisms.

According to Ha Joon Chang, this view that you can and should study the economy in only one way for example by studying only rational choices , and going even one step further and basically redefining economics as a theory of everything, is very peculiar. Questions regarding distribution of resources are found throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod himself as the "first economist".

Joseph Schumpeter described 16th and 17th century scholastic writers, including Tomás de Mercado , Luis de Molina , and Juan de Lugo , as "coming nearer than any other group to being the 'founders' of scientific economics" as to monetary , interest , and value theory within a natural-law perspective.

Two groups, who later were called "mercantilists" and "physiocrats", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. Both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in Europe.

Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen.

It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver. Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver.

The doctrine called for importing cheap raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies. Physiocrats , a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output. Physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth.

Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners. In reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of laissez-faire , which called for minimal government intervention in the economy.

Adam Smith — was an early economic theorist. The publication of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in , has been described as "the effective birth of economics as a separate discipline. Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour , including increased labour productivity and gains from trade , whether between town and country or across countries.

In an argument that includes "one of the most famous passages in all economics," [55] Smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society, [a] and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce.

He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.

Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. The Rev. Thomas Robert Malthus used the concept of diminishing returns to explain low living standards.

Human population , he argued, tended to increase geometrically, outstripping the production of food, which increased arithmetically. The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour.

The result, he claimed, was chronically low wages, which prevented the standard of living for most of the population from rising above the subsistence level. While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists. Ricardo saw an inherent conflict between landowners on the one hand and labour and capital on the other. He posited that the growth of population and capital, pressing against a fixed supply of land, pushes up rents and holds down wages and profits.

Ricardo was the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage , according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.

Coming at the end of the classical tradition, John Stuart Mill parted company with the earlier classical economists on the inevitability of the distribution of income produced by the market system. Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income. The market might be efficient in allocating resources but not in distributing income, he wrote, making it necessary for society to intervene.

Value theory was important in classical theory. Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing is the toil and trouble of acquiring it". Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity.

Classical economics focused on the tendency of any market economy to settle in a final stationary state made up of a constant stock of physical wealth capital and a constant population size. Marxist later, Marxian economics descends from classical economics and it derives from the work of Karl Marx. The first volume of Marx's major work, Das Kapital , was published in German in In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and the theory of surplus value which, he believed, explained the exploitation of labour by capital.

Marxian economics was further developed by Karl Kautsky 's The Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx and The Class Struggle Erfurt Program , Rudolf Hilferding 's Finance Capital , Vladimir Lenin 's The Development of Capitalism in Russia and Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism , and Rosa Luxemburg 's The Accumulation of Capital. At the dawn as a social science, economics was defined and discussed at length as the study of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth by Jean-Baptiste Say in his Treatise on Political Economy or, The Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth These three items are considered by the science only in relation to the increase or diminution of wealth, and not in reference to their processes of execution.

One hundred and thirty years later, Lionel Robbins noticed that this definition no longer sufficed, [c] because many economists were making theoretical and philosophical inroads in other areas of human activity. In his Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science , he proposed a definition of economics as a study of a particular aspect of human behaviour, the one that falls under the influence of scarcity, [d] which forces people to choose, allocate scarce resources to competing ends, and economize seeking the greatest welfare while avoiding the wasting of scarce resources.

For Robbins, the insufficiency was solved, and his definition allows us to proclaim, with an easy conscience, education economics, safety and security economics, health economics, war economics, and of course, production, distribution and consumption economics as valid subjects of the economic science. A body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or " marginalism " formed from about to The term "economics" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall and Mary Paley Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier " political economy ".

Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.

In microeconomics , neoclassical economics represents incentives and costs as playing a pervasive role in shaping decision making. An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices as costs and income affect quantity demanded. Neoclassical economics is occasionally referred as orthodox economics whether by its critics or sympathizers.

Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics , game theory , analysis of market failure and imperfect competition , and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income. Neoclassical economics studies the behaviour of individuals , households , and organizations called economic actors, players, or agents , when they manage or use scarce resources, which have alternative uses, to achieve desired ends.

Agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice.

There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision choice is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions. In other words, resource-controlling agents maximize value subject to the constraints imposed by the information the agents have, their cognitive limitations, and the finite amount of time they have to make and execute a decision.

Economic science centres on the activities of the economic agents that comprise society. An approach to understanding these processes, through the study of agent behaviour under scarcity, may go as follows:.

The continuous interplay exchange or trade done by economic actors in all markets sets the prices for all goods and services which, in turn, make the rational managing of scarce resources possible. At the same time, the decisions choices made by the same actors, while they are pursuing their own interest, determine the level of output production , consumption, savings, and investment, in an economy, as well as the remuneration distribution paid to the owners of labour in the form of wages , capital in the form of profits and land in the form of rent.

Because of the autonomous actions of rational interacting agents, the economy is a complex adaptive system. Keynesian economics derives from John Maynard Keynes , in particular his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money , which ushered in contemporary macroeconomics as a distinct field. Keynes attempted to explain in broad theoretical detail why high labour-market unemployment might not be self-correcting due to low " effective demand " and why even price flexibility and monetary policy might be unavailing.

The term "revolutionary" has been applied to the book in its impact on economic analysis. Keynesian economics has two successors. Post-Keynesian economics also concentrates on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes.

Introduction only. The aforementioned microeconomic concepts play a major part in macroeconomic models — for instance, in monetary theory , the quantity theory of money predicts that increases in the growth rate of the money supply increase inflation , and inflation is assumed to be influenced by rational expectations. Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour , including increased labour productivity and gains from trade , whether between town and country or across countries. By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense. Simalakama Supir Truk Saat Kecelakaan Lalu Lintas Sekitar 1 Jam yang lalu. Revelation Principle.

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